An examination of how parks, gardens, and natural environments within cities contribute to the physical and mental well-being of urban populations.
A As the global population becomes increasingly concentrated in metropolitan areas, with projections suggesting that nearly 70 percent of humanity will reside in cities by 2050, the question of how urban environments affect human health has gained considerable urgency. Researchers across disciplines — from epidemiology to urban planning — have turned their attention to one feature of the built environment that appears to offer measurable benefits: green spaces. These include public parks, community gardens, tree-lined streets, riverbanks, and other areas of managed or semi-natural vegetation found within city boundaries.
B A growing body of evidence indicates that access to urban green spaces is associated with a reduction in the prevalence of several chronic health conditions. A landmark study conducted across nine European cities found that residents living within 300 metres of a park or garden reported significantly lower rates of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and obesity compared to those without nearby green areas. The researchers controlled for socioeconomic factors and concluded that proximity to nature, rather than income or education level, was the decisive variable. These findings have been supported by subsequent longitudinal studies in East Asia and North America.
C The mechanisms through which green spaces improve physical health are multifaceted. Most directly, parks and trails provide accessible venues for physical activity, counteracting the sedentary lifestyles that have become characteristic of modern urban living. A survey of over 12,000 adults in Australian cities demonstrated that individuals with a park within a ten-minute walk of their home were 30 percent more likely to meet recommended weekly exercise targets. Furthermore, the presence of mature trees and vegetation has been shown to reduce ambient air temperatures by up to four degrees Celsius in surrounding streets, mitigating the urban heat island effect and lowering rates of heat-related illness.
D Beyond physical health, the psychological benefits of urban greenery have attracted increasing scholarly attention. Exposure to natural settings, even for relatively brief periods, has been linked to reductions in cortisol levels, improved concentration, and a measurable decrease in symptoms of anxiety and depression. One widely cited experiment required participants to walk for 90 minutes in either a natural or an urban setting; those who walked in nature showed reduced neural activity in the subgenual prefrontal cortex, a brain region associated with repetitive negative thinking. Such findings suggest that green spaces may function as a form of preventive mental health infrastructure.
E However, the distribution of urban green spaces is far from equitable. Studies of cities in both developed and developing nations have consistently revealed that lower-income neighbourhoods tend to have fewer parks, smaller green areas, and less well-maintained public gardens than wealthier districts. This disparity has led some researchers to describe access to nature as a matter of environmental justice. In the United States, for instance, communities with a higher proportion of ethnic minority residents have been found to possess, on average, 44 percent less park space per capita than predominantly white neighbourhoods.
F Recognising these inequalities, several municipal governments have embarked on ambitious greening programmes. Singapore, often cited as a model, has increased its green cover from 36 percent to nearly 47 percent over two decades through a combination of rooftop gardens, vertical planting systems, and the creation of interconnected park networks. Similarly, the city of Medellín in Colombia constructed a series of "green corridors" — landscaped strips connecting previously isolated neighbourhoods — which reduced local temperatures by up to two degrees and increased biodiversity in formerly barren urban zones. These initiatives demonstrate that the integration of nature into dense urbanization is not merely aspirational but practically achievable.
G Nevertheless, experts caution that the mere provision of green spaces does not guarantee health improvements. The quality, safety, and cultural appropriateness of these spaces matter as much as their quantity. Parks that are poorly lit, perceived as unsafe, or designed without input from local communities tend to be underutilised regardless of their proximity to residential areas. Effective urban greening, researchers argue, requires not only investment in planting and maintenance but also sustained community engagement to ensure that green spaces serve the populations for whom they are intended.
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the Reading Passage? Write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information, FALSE if the statement contradicts the information, NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this.
By 2050, approximately 70 percent of the world's population is expected to live in urban areas.
The European study found that income level was the most important factor in determining residents' health outcomes.
The Australian survey involved more than 10,000 participants.
Walking in natural settings was found to increase activity in the subgenual prefrontal cortex.
Lower-income neighbourhoods often have fewer trained park staff than wealthier areas.
Singapore's greening programme has been funded primarily by international development agencies.
Community involvement is considered essential for the success of urban greening projects.
Complete the notes below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Urban green spaces and public health Research has shown that living near parks can reduce the prevalence of chronic conditions such as cardiovascular disease and ___8___. The key factor was found to be proximity to nature rather than residents' income or ___9___ level. Green spaces encourage physical activity — people living near parks are 30 percent more likely to meet ___10___ targets. Trees also help by reducing air temperatures and lowering rates of heat-related ___11___. In terms of mental health, walking in nature was found to reduce activity in a brain region linked to repetitive negative ___12___. However, the distribution of green spaces remains unequal, with lower-income areas having fewer parks and less well-maintained ___13___.
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
According to the passage, what did Kahneman and Tversky's research primarily demonstrate?
In the anchoring experiment described in paragraph C, the purpose of the spinning wheel was to
The passage suggests that people overestimate the danger of flying because
What does the passage identify as a limitation of simply teaching people about cognitive biases?
Complete the summary below. Choose ONE WORD from the list of words A-J for each answer.
Kahneman and Tversky showed that people use mental __1__ to make quick decisions. While often helpful, these shortcuts can produce systematic errors. For example, the anchoring effect causes people to be overly influenced by __2__ information. In medicine, doctors who form an early hypothesis may display confirmation bias by ignoring __3__ evidence. To address these problems, behavioural scientists recommend designing structured environments, sometimes called choice __4__, that guide people towards better decisions.
Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in the Reading Passage? Write YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer, NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer, NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this.
Cognitive biases can have serious consequences in the field of medicine.
The concept of "nudges" is an effective way to apply research on cognitive biases.
Informing people about biases is sufficient to eliminate their effects on decision-making.
Kahneman and Tversky conducted most of their early experiments at Harvard University.
Kahneman believes that cognitive biases can be completely eliminated through education.
The writer approves of the use of nudges to influence people's decisions.
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the Reading Passage? Write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information, FALSE if the statement contradicts the information, NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this.
Before the twentieth century, the study of sleep was based primarily on philosophical reasoning rather than scientific experimentation.
Hans Berger's EEG research confirmed the existing belief that the brain was inactive during sleep.
REM sleep was first identified by researchers working at a university in Germany.
Growth hormone is released primarily during the deep sleep phase.
Participants in the memory experiment who slept recalled fewer word pairs than those who stayed awake.
The UK study on sleep deprivation included both adults and children as participants.
Exposure to screen light in the evening can interfere with the body's natural sleep systems.
Complete the summary below. Choose NO MORE THAN ONE WORD from the passage for each answer.
Sleep research has revealed that sleep plays a crucial role in memory (1) _____, the process by which the brain strengthens and organises new information. During sleep, the (2) _____ replays recent experiences, transferring them to the neocortex for permanent storage. This memory replay happens mainly during slow-wave sleep. Meanwhile, the effects of sleep (3) _____ are well documented: even small reductions in sleep can harm (4) _____ abilities such as attention and problem-solving. The body's internal clock, known as the (5) _____ rhythm, works together with the homeostatic sleep drive to regulate when we feel alert or drowsy. However, artificial (6) _____ from electronic screens can disrupt this system and reduce sleep quality.